Neanderthal

Neanderthals ( nee-AN-də(r)-TAHL, nay-, -⁠THAHL; Homo neanderthalensis or sometimes Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) are an extinct group of archaic humans who inhabited Europe and Western and Central Asia during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. The timeline of Neanderthal extinction is uncertain, but generally considered to be complete in Asia and most of Europe by 40,000 years ago, perhaps because early modern humans came to Europe. Neanderthals seem to have survived longer in some parts of the Iberian Peninsula.

The first recognised Neanderthal fossil, Neanderthal 1, was discovered in 1856 in the Neander Valley, Germany. At first, Neanderthal 1 was considered to be one of the lower races in accord with historical race concepts. As more fossils were discovered through the early 20th century, Neanderthals were characterised as a unique species of underdeveloped human, in particular by Marcellin Boule. By the mid-twentieth century, it was believed that human evolution progressed from an ape-like ancestor through a "Neanderthal phase" to modern humans. This gave way to the "Out of Africa II" theory in the 1970s. Publication of the first high-quality Neanderthal genome from ancient DNA in 2010 revealed that Neanderthals interbred with modern humans, and that modern humans with non-African ancestry carry small amounts of Neanderthal ancestry.

Neanderthal anatomy is characterised by a long and low skull, a heavy and rounded brow ridge (supraorbital torus), an occipital bun (bony projection) at the back of the skull, strong teeth and jaws, a wide chest, and short limbs. These traits gradually became more frequent through the Middle Pleistocene of Europe, possibly due to natural selection in the cold climate, as well as genetic drift when populations collapsed during glacial periods. Specimens vary in height from 147.5 to 177 cm (4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 10 in), with an average male estimated at 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) and weighing 75 kg (165 lb). While Neanderthal brain volume and ratio to body size averaged higher than any living human population—1,640 cc (100 cu in) for males and 1,460 cc (89 cu in) for females—their brain organisation differed from modern humans in areas related to cognition and language, which could explain the comparative simplicity of Neanderthal behaviour to Cro-Magnons in the archaeological record.

Neanderthals made Mousterian stone tools (a Middle Palaeolithic industry) and possibly wore blankets and ponchos. They maintained and might have created fire. They predominantly ate whatever was abundant close to home, usually big game as well as plants and mushrooms. Neanderthals were frequently victims of major physical traumas and animal attacks. Examples of Palaeolithic art have been inconclusively attributed to Neanderthals, namely possible ornaments made from bird claws and feathers; collections of unusual objects including crystals and fossils; and engravings. Neanderthals buried their dead, but there is no clear indication that they believed in life after death.

From the Wikipedia article “Neanderthal” (en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neanderthal&oldid=1384628106), by Wikipedia contributors, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0). This block is kept separate from our own text.